Medicinal Mushrooms

Tylopilus felleus (Bull.) P. Karst., the bitter bolete.
Picture source: Wikipedia Commons.

Boletus alutarius Fr.
Boletus alutarius Rostk.
Boletus felleus Bull.
Tylopilus alutarius (Fr.) Rea
Tylopilus felleus var. alutarius (Fr.) P. Karst.
Tylopilus felleus (Bull.) P. Karst., Revue mycol.
Tylopilus felleus var. minor (Coker & Beers) Pilát & Dermek
Tylopilus felleus var. uliginosus A.H. Sm. & Thiers

Cap: 5-15 cm; convex to broadly convex or nearly flat in age; dry; smooth, unpolished; sometimes becoming cracked; brown to tan, usually with cinnamon shades, becoming paler with age. Pore surface salmon to flesh-colored; sometimes bruising brownish; pores circular, 1-2 per mm; tubes to 2 cm.
Stem: 4-20 cm long; 1-3 cm thick (above the base); often curved; club-shaped and bulbous; pale above, concolorous with cap downward; strongly reticulate, at least over upper third; sometimes with olive stains in age.
Flesh: thick and white; unchanging or staining pinkish.
Spore print: flesh colored to clay-pink.
Spores: 11-17 x 3-5 µm; spindle-shaped to elliptical; smooth.
Habitat: coniferous and deciduous woodland. Season late summer to autumn. Solitary, or sometimes small groups.
Edibility: inedible due to its extremely bitter taste.
Chemical reactions: cap surface orange to reddish orange with KOH or ammonia, olive with iron salts; flesh greenish yellow with KOH, pale yellow (with a bluish zone) with ammonia; grayish green with iron salts. Siderophilous granulation is a characteristic of this species.

Details about the distinguishing microscopic characteristics of this and other Tylopilus species are given in Wolfe (1991).

Medicinal effects
Anti-tumor activity

An extract of the fruit body inhibited the growth of both Sarcoma 180 and Ehrlich solid tumors in white mice by 100% (Ohtsuka et al., 1973).

Another mouse study evaluated the antitumor activity of tylopilan, a β-(1→3) (1→6) linked glucan isolated from fruit bodies in combination with a Propionibacterium acnes preparation (known to be immunogenic). A single injection of tylopilan (25 or 50 µg per mouse) was sufficient to extend the mean survival time of mice injected with tumor cells from 17.5 to 22.8 days. Tylopilan injected in conjunction with the immunostimulative Propionibacterium acnes preparation prolonged significantly MST in comparison to control mice as well as to tylopilan alone treated mice suggesting that the immune stimulation enhances the antitumor effect of tylopilan. Additionally, tylopilan showed cytotoxic activity towards 180-TG Crocker tumor cells in vitro at a variety of concentrations ranging from 37.5 to 300 µg/ml (Grzbek et al., 1994).

Antiinflammatory activity

T. felleus lyophilized preparation tested in the carrageenin-induced oedema test in rats, exhibit a significant inhibition of inflammation at all doses above 50 mg/kg (subcutaneous) while oral administration produced no significant results (Kohlmunzer et al., 1977)

Web

Mushroom Expert
There's a variety of pictures at this Czech nature photography site, some more at the BioPix site, and even more at this Danish Nature site.

References

Chlap Z, Kohlmunzer S.
Effect of Tylopilus felleus preparation on transplantable tumors in mice.
Planta Medica. 1978 33(3):290-1.

Defaye J, Kohlmunzer S, Sodzawiczny K, Wong E.
Structure of an antitumor, water-soluble D-glucan from the carpophores of Tylopilus felleus.
Carbohydrate Research. 1988 173(2):316-23.

Grzybek J, Zgorniaknowosielska I, Kasprowicz A, Zawilinska B, Kohlmunzer S.
Antitumor activity of a fungal glucan tylopilan and Propionibacterium acnes preparation.
Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae. 1994 63(3-4):293-8.

Kohlmunzer S, Grzybek J, Molik-Wegiel J.
Investigations on the biological activity of extracts of Tylopilus felleus (Bull. ex Fr.) P Karst. by means of mycological tests.
Pol J Pharmacol Pharm. 1975 27(1):95-9.
Pubmed

Kohlmunzer S, Grzybek J, Tanaka M.
Anti-tumor and cyto-toxic activity of polysaccharides from Tylopilus felleus.
Planta Medica. 1980 39(3):231-2.

Kohlmunzer S, Quinn ML, Benoit PS, Farnsworth NR.
Antiinflammatory activity of Tylopilus felleus (Bull. ex Fr.) P. Karst.
Pol J Pharmacol Pharm. 1977 29(5):539-41.
Pubmed

McLaughlin DJ.
Fruitbody formation by Tylopilus felleus in axenic culture.
Mycologia. 1974 66(1):197-202.

Ohtsuka S, Ueno S, Yoshikumi C, Hirose F, Ohmura Y, Wada T, Fujii T, Takahashi E.
Polysaccharides having an anticarcinogenic effect and a method of producing them from species of Basidiomycetes.
UK Patent 1331513, 26 September 1973.

Wolfe CB.
Type studies in Tylopilus (Boletaceae). V. Taxa described by Alexander H. Smith, Harry D. Thiers, and Samuel J. Mazzer.
Can J Bot. 1991 69(8):1833-8.

Last modified: 29-Feb-2008

Russula xerampelina (Schaeff) Fr., the crab brittlegill.
Picture credit: Gordon Zhang, and Wikipedia Commons

Agaricus xerampelina Schaeff.
Russula alutacea var. erythropus Fr.
Russula erythropus Fr. ex Pelt.
Russula erythropus var. ochracea J. Blum
Russula xerampelina var. erythropus (Fr. ex Pelt.) Konrad & J. Favre [as 'erythropoda']
Russula xerampelina (Schaeff.) Fr.

Crab brittlegill
Shrimp mushroom
Woodland russula
Herring mushroom

Cap: 5-12 inches diameter, convex to slightly depressed, variable in color, usually deep blood-red or brownish-red, often paler (yellowish) in the center, fleshy, compact, skin slightly slimy at first, then somewhat granular. Peel difficult to separate from the flesh; margin even, grooved on aging.
Gills: adnexed, close, narrower at the stem, some forked, pale cream color or yellow.
Stem: 3-10 cm long, 1-3 cm thick, white or tinged reddish, equal, firm, striate or grooved, staining yellowish when bruised and brownish when cut; smell of crab or fish when old; taste usually mild.
Spore print: cream to yellow.
Spores: broadly elliptical, ornamented with prominent warts and thin lines, apiculate, 8-11 x 7-8 µm.
Habitat: singly or scattered in woods on ground, later summer and fall.
Edibility: edible.
Chemical tests: the flesh stains dark green with FeSO₄.

Evaluating protein quality in R. xerampelina by analysing the composition of essential amino acids, researchers concluded that this species has a very good protein content with a biological value (BV=83%) comparable to that of beef (BV=85%) (Petrovska and Kulevanov, 2006).

Medicinal properties

Anti-tumor activity

An extract of the fruit bodies inhibited the growth of Sarcoma 180 and Ehrlich solid cancers in mice by 70% and 80%, respectively (Ohtsuka et al., 1973).

R. xerampelina extract was shown to be inhibitory to the growth of Plasmodium falciparum, a pyrimethamine-resistant malarial parasite (Lovy et al., 2000).

Links

Mushroom Expert
California fungi
BioPix

References

Adamcik S, Marhold K.
Taxonomy of the Russula xerampelina group I. Morphometric study of the Russula Xerampelina group in Slovakia
Mycotaxon. 2000 76:463-79.

Adamcik S.
Taxonomy of the Russula xerampelina group. Part 2. Taxonomic and nomenclatural study of Russula xerampelina and R. erythropoda.
Mycotaxon. 2002 82:241-67.

Adamcik S.
Studies on Russula clavipes and related taxa of Russula section xerampelinae with a predominantly olivaceous pileus
Persoonia. 2004 18(3):393-409.

Lovy A, Knowles B, Labbe R, Nolan L.
Activity of edible mushrooms against the growth of human T4 leukemic cancer cells, HeLa cervical cancer cells, and Plasmodium falciparum.
Journal of Herbs, Spices & Medicinal Plants. 2000 6(4):49-58.

Ohtsuka S, Ueno S, Yoshikumi C, Hirose F, Ohmura Y, Wada T, Fujii T, Takahashi E.
Polysaccharides having an anticarcinogenic effect and a method of producing them from species of Basidiomycetes.
UK Patent 1331513, 26 September 1973.

Petrovska BB, Kulevanova S.
Composition and nutritive value of protein in some Macedonian edible wild Russulaceae mushrooms.
Planta Med. 2006. 72(11):P214
Thieme abstract

The witches hat, Hygrocybe conica (Scop.) P. Kumm., displaying its broad, thick, waxy gills.
Picture source: Wikipedia Commons

Agaricus conicus Schaeff.
Agaricus tristis Pers.
Hygrocybe chloroides (Malençon) Kovalenko
Hygrocybe cinereifolia Courtec. & Priou, in Courtecuisse
Hygrocybe conica (Scop.) P. Kumm.
Hygrocybe conica f. pseudoconica (J.E. Lange) Arnolds
Hygrocybe conica var. chloroides (Malençon) Bon
Hygrocybe conica var. olivaceonigra (P.D. Orton) Arnolds
Hygrocybe conica var. tristis (Pers.) Heinem.
Hygrocybe nigrescens sensu auct.
Hygrocybe olivaceonigra (P.D. Orton) M.M. Moser
Hygrocybe pseudoconica J.E. Lange
Hygrocybe tristis (Pers.) F.H. Møller [as 'trista']
Hygrophorus conicus (Scop.) Fr.
Hygrophorus conicus var. chloroides Malençon
Hygrophorus conicus var. nigrescens sensu auct.
Hygrophorus conicus var. olivaceoniger (P.D. Orton) Arnolds
Hygrophorus nigrescens sensu auct., non Quél.
Hygrophorus olivaceoniger P.D. Orton
Hygrophorus tristis (Pers.) Bres.

Witch's hat
Conical waxcap
Conical slimy cap
Blackening waxcap

Cap: 1-5 cm diameter, conical in shape, often lobed, remaining unexpanded and usually with a relatively acute tip and lobed margin, splitting as the cap expands, fleshy, thin, fragile, waxy, bright-scarlet-red, orange-red, or orange-yellow, sometimes tinged with greenish or blackish streaks, viscid, blackening when bruised or with age.
Gills: almost free from the stem, waxy, rather broad, moderately close, yellowish then oliveaceous and finally blackish.
Flesh: no distinctive taste or smell; orange, lighter than the cap, blackening when cut.
Stem: up to 10 cm long and  0.6 cm thick, yellowish to reddish, blackening when bruised, cylindrical, becoming hollow; the surface finely striate.
Spore print: white.
Spores: smooth, ellipsoid, hyaline, non-amyloid, 10-13 x 5-6.5 µm.
Habitat: solitary or in small groups on ground in moist coniferous forest. Occasionally in pastures, meadows, lawns and road-sides.
Season: late summer and fall.
Edibility: probably edible. But see Michael Kuo's site for a thorough discussion of this topic.

The pigment compound muscaflavin (shown below) has been isolated from fruit bodies of H. conica (von Ardenne et al., 1974).

This compound is thought to be synthesized enzymatically from L-DOPA, an intermediate in dopamine biosynthesis that has also been found in H. conica (3.2% of dry weight) (Steglich and Proess, 1975). See this interesting article for a discussion about muscaflavin, which is also synthesized by Amanita muscaria. Other related pigments found in this species (as well as A. muscaria) include 2,3-secodopa (A below) and 4,5-secodopa (B) (Terradas and Wyler, 1991).

A study of the trace metal content of six wild edible mushrooms common in Korea showed that, in addition to the usual common metals (potassium, iron, zinc, sodium, manganese, copper and calcium in order of concentration from highest to lowest), the zinc content in the witch's hat was the highest. Other than cadmium, the total contents of inorganic components were the highest in Hygrocybe conica, and decrease in order Hygrophorus russula, Lepista nuda, Lepista sordida, Armillariella mellea and Armillariella tabescens. Additionally, no copper was found in this analysis (Park 1993).

An extract of H. conica fruit bodies inhibited Sarcoma 180 and Ehrlich solid cancers in mice by 90% and 80%, respectively (Ohtsuka et al., 1973).

Web

Tom Volk's Fungus of the Month
California Fungi

References

Bougher NL, Young AM.
Hygrophoraceae of Western Australia
Mycotaxon. 1997 63:25-35.

Desjardin DE, Hemmes DE.
Agaricales of the Hawaiian Islands. 4: Hygrophoraceae.
Mycologia. 1997  89(4):615-638.

Ohtsuka S, Ueno S, Yoshikumi C, Hirose F, Ohmura Y, Wada T, Fujii T, Takahashi E.
Polysaccharides having an anticarcinogenic effect and a method of producing them from species of Basidiomycetes.
UK Patent 1331513, 26 September 1973.

Park W-H.
Studies on inorganic components of Korean wild edible mushrooms: Trace mineral elements of Armillariella mellea, Hygrophorous russula, Armillariella tabescens, Lepista nuda and Lepista sordida, Hygrocybe conica.
Korean Journal of Mycology. 1993 21(4):273-8.

Steglich W, Preuss R.
L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine from carpophores of Hygrocybe conica and H. ovina.
Phytochem. 1975 14(4):1119.

Terradas F, Wyler H.
The secodopas, natural pigments in Hygrocybe conica and Amanita muscaria.
Phytochem. 1991 30(10):3251-3.

von Ardenne R, Döpp H, Musso H, Steglich W.
Pilzpigmente, 21. Fliegenpilzfarbstoffe, 5. Über das Vorkommen von Muscaflavin bei Hygrocyben (Agaricales) und seine Dihydroazepin-Struktur.
Z. Naturforsch. 1974 29c:637-9.
 

The spring polypore, Polyporus arcularius (Batsch) Fr., characterized by the honey-colored cap, the cileate margin, and the large angular pores.
Photo Credit: © Heino Lepp. From the Australian National Botanic Gardens website.

Boletus alveolarius Bosc
Boletus arcularius Batsch
Boletus exasperatus Schrad.
Favolus agariceus (Berk.) Lév.
Favolus alveolarius (Bosc) Fr.
Favolus ciliaris Mont., Annls Sci. Nat.
Favolus curtisii Berk.
Favolus hondurensis (Murrill) Sacc. & D. Sacc.
Favolus portoricensis (Murrill) Sacc. & D. Sacc.
Favolus squamiger Berk., J. Linn. Soc.
Heteroporus arcularius (Batsch) Lázaro Ibiza
Hexagonia hondurensis Murrill
Hexagonia portoricensis Murrill
Leucoporus agariceus (Berk.) Pat.
Leucoporus arcularius (Batsch) Quél.
Polyporellus agariceus (Berk.) Pilát
Polyporellus alveolarius (Bosc) P. Karst.,
Polyporus agariceus Berk.
Polyporus alveolarius (Bosc) Fr.
Polyporus anisoporus Delastre & Mont.
Polyporus arculariellus Murrill
Polyporus arculariformis Murrill
Polyporus calaber F. Brig.
Polyporus handelii Lohwag
Polyporus intermedius Rostk., in Sturm
Polyporus nanus Durieu & Mont.
Polyporus orbicularis Saut.
Polyporus penningtonii Speg.
Polyporus rhombiporus Pers.
Polyporus umbilicatus Jungh.
Polyporus vanderystii Lloyd

Fringed polypore
Spring polypore

Fruiting body: circular, convex to umbilicate, 1-8 cm in diameter, 1-4 mm thick; depressed center, squamulose, hispid-tomentose or glabrous, cinnamon-buff to antimony-yellow when fresh, drying brown; margin acute, ciliate, straight, reflexed on drying; context white, drying white to pinkish-buff, 0.5-2 mm thick.
Tubes: decurrent, white  to pinkish-buff, drying light pinkish-buff to tawny, 1-3 mm long; mouths large, angular or honeycomb-shaped, pores 1-2 per mm, concolorous with the tubes.
Stem: central or slightly off-center, slender, 2-4 cm long, 2-3 mm thick, squamulose, hispid-tomentose or glabrous above, fibrillose and bulbous at the base, concolorous with the pileus or slightly darker.
Spore print: white.
Spores: hyaline, smooth, elongate-ellipsoid, apiculate, nonamyloid, 7-11 x 2-3 µm.
Habitat: on various deciduous hosts, especially Populus tremuloides.
Occurrence: uncommon. Spring and early summer.
Edibility: edible but essentially unpalatable due to tough flesh.

P. arcularius has been chemically investigated (Fleck et al., 1996) yielding isodrimenediol, drimenediol, and related sesquiterpenes. Later, two additional compounds, named isocryptoporic acids H (3-carboxy-2- (2,5,5,8a-tetramethyl- 1,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-naphthalen-1-ylmethoxy) -pentanedioic acid) and isocryptoporic acid I (3-carboxy-2- (6-hydroxy-2,5,5,8a-tetramethyl-1,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a- octahydro-naphthalen-1-ylmethoxy) -pentanedioic acid.), were isolated. These isocryptoporic acids are isomers of the cryptoporic acids with drimenol instead of albicanol as the terpenoid fragment (Cabrera et al., 2002).

Both the aqueous and organic fractions from an extract of the mycelial culture of P. arcularius showed antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis (Yamac and Bilgili, 2006). Another group had previously reported antimicrobial activity in this species, but also noted some intra-specific genetic differences (Suay et al., 2004).

An extract of the culture mycelia (as Favolus alveolarius Quél) inhibited the growth of Sarcoma 180 in mice by 80%, while a fruit body extract inhibited the growth of both Sarcoma 180 and Ehrlich solid cancers by 70% and 60%, respectively (Ohtsuka et al., 1973).

Links

Mushroom Expert
Australian Fungi Blog
Fungi on Wood website

References

Cabrera GM, Roberti MJ, Wright JE, Seldes AM.
Cryptoporic and isocryptoporic acids from the fungal cultures of Polyporus arcularius and P. ciliatus.
Phytochem. 2002 61(2):189-93.
Pubmed

Fleck WF, Schlegel B, Hoffmann P, Ritzau M, Heinze S, Grafe U.
Isolation of isodrimenediol, a possible intermediate of drimane biosynthesis from Polyporus arcularius.
J Nat Prod. 1996 59(8):780-1.

Ohtsuka S, Ueno S, Yoshikumi C, Hirose F, Ohmura Y, Wada T, Fujii T, Takahashi E.
Polysaccharides having an anticarcinogenic effect and a method of producing them from species of Basidiomycetes.
UK Patent 1331513, 26 September 1973.

Suay I, Arenal F, Asensio FJ, Basilio A, Cabello MA, Diez MT, Garcia JB, Val AG, Gorrochategui J, Hernandez P, Peláez F, Vicente MF.
Screening of Basidiomycetes for antimicrobial activities.
Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek. 2000 78: 129–139.

Yamac M, Bilgili F.
Antimicrobial activities of fruit bodies and/or mycelial cultures of some mushroom isolates.
Pharm Biol. 2006 44(9):660-7.

Last modified: 25-Feb-2008

Kuehneromyces mutabilis, commonly named for the different colors above and below the annulus.
Picture source: Wikipedia.

Synonyms

Agaricus mutabilis Schaeff.
Dryophila mutabilis (Schaeff.) Quél.
Galerina mutabilis (Schaeff.) P.D. Orton
Lepiota caudicina Gray
Pholiota mutabilis (Schaeff.) P. Kumm.

Brown Stew Fungus
Two-toned Pholiota
Sheathed Woodtuft
Stockschwämmchen (German)

(Adapted from Overholts, 1927)
Cap: 3-6 cm diameter; convex to plane; cinnamon/tan when moist, paler when dry, ochraceous-buff when dry, hygrophanous, glabrous.
Gills: adnate or slightly decurrent, medium-close, 2-4 mm broad, pallid then cinnamon.
Veil: forming a white or dark, superior, evanescent or persistent annulus.
Stem: 3-8 cm tall, 3-5 mm diameter, central, equal, concolorous with the cap above the ring; scaly below the ring, pruinose above, stuffed then hollow.
Spores: reddish ochre, ovoid or elliptic, slightly truncate at one end, smooth, 6-7.5 x 4-5 µm.
Habitat: on stumps and logs.
Edibility: Edible, although not recommended due to similar appearance to poisonous species Galerina marginata.

A long-term Finnish study on the occurrence of some common edible macromycetes describes how K. mutabilis was found at the same tree stumps for 13 years, suggesting an impressive mycelial longevity (Hintikka 1993).

The title of Mentel and associates' paper (1994) suggests that the two-toned pholiota has some anti-viral activity against influenza virus. I'll  let you know more details once I get a hold of the paper.

An extract of the fruit bodies was able to inhibit the growth of Sarcoma 180 and Ehrlich solid cancers in mice by 100% and 90%, respectively (Ohtsuka et al., 1973).

Links

Roger's mushrooms
Josef Hlasek's site has some nice pictures
California fungi
Biopix has an impressive gallery of pictures.

References

Hintikka V.
Occurrence of edible fungi and other macromycetes on tree stumps over a sixteen-year period.
Acta Botanica Fennica. 1993 149(0):11-17.

Mentel R, Meinsen D, Pilgrim H, Herrmann B, Lindequist U.
In vitro antiviral effect of extracts of Kuehneromyces mutabilis on influenza virus.
Pharmazie. 1994 49(11):859-60.
Pubmed

Ohtsuka S, Ueno S, Yoshikumi C, Hirose F, Ohmura Y, Wada T, Fujii T, Takahashi E.
Polysaccharides having an anticarcinogenic effect and a method of producing them from species of Basidiomycetes.
UK Patent 1331513, 26 September 1973.

Overholts LO.
A monograph of the genus Pholiota in the United States.
Ann Mis Bot Gar. 1927 14(2):87-211.

 
Last modified: 08-Mar-2008